Written by Renata Filiaci, MS Health and Wellness

The concept of using plants as medicine has been a growing phenomenon in Western culture, especially the use of the cannabis plant. The purpose of this study was to assess whether non-psychotropic cannabinol (CBD) has a variety of natural therapeutic applications for overall wellness. CBD is a derivative of the cannabis plant with potentially many health benefits as reviewed in this study through animal and human research. The studies provide a clear explanation that CBD has theoretically helped with many diseases and neurological disorders by influencing endocannabinoid receptors in the human body, which has the notion of changing the Western medical industry. However, because CBD is related to the cannabis plant, it is seen as an ethical dilemma though there is no relation to tetrahydrocannabinol, which causes the determination of it being a class 1 drug due to psychoactive experiences when used, except for being from the same plant.

Introduction

The cannabis plant has been around for thousands of years in Eastern cultures, such as China, India, and sub-Saharan Africa. Eastern cultures have been using cannabis seeds and leaves, and hemp oil in food and medicine since as early as 2700 BC. Cannabis was then introduced to Europe in the early to the middle 19th century for medicinal purposes; it then found its way to the United States in the late 19th century at which cannabis extractions and medications were used in pharmaceuticals. However, continual recreational marijuana use caused uproar creating the Marijuana Tax Act in 1937. Unbeknownst to most, the cannabis plant has 60 derivative compounds ranging from tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), which acts as a psycho-active property in marijuana, hashish, and hashish oil creating a euphoric high, to cannabinols (CBD), though all containing medicinal purposes. Scientists began noticing the hype surrounding the cannabis plant and initiated studies to retrieve its abundant medicinal properties, which potentially trump current pain-relieving treatment, opioids (Elikottil, Gupta, & Gupta, 2009). One of the first studies was conceived in the United States in 1975 by the National Cancer Institute because cannabis was believed to have anti-cancer properties; unfortunately, it did not pan out due to unclear limitations and was pursued by Spain and Italy making considerable advancements in the medical field (Abrams, 2016). More and more studies have been appearing which has led to 82% of oncologists believing that patients should have cannabis available as a means of analgesic treatment (Abrams, 2016).

There are three classifications of cannabinoids, phytocannabinoids, endocannabinoids, and synthetic cannabinoids, that bind to receptors found in the human body. Phytocannabinoids are relative to plant matter at which THC and CBD derive. Endocannabinoids are proteins found in the cannabis plant that bind to the human and animal endocannabinoid system located in the central nervous system. Synthetic cannabinoids are human-made chemical compounds separate from the cannabis plant. The endocannabinoid system in the human body has two receptors, CB-1 (neuro) and CB-2 (immune), which become excited in response to the entering of any cannabinoid (Elikottil et al., 2009).

In 2004, a study done by the author J.C. Callaway assessed whether hempseed oil was of nutritional value considering its use as medicine and food in Old World Cultures for thousands of years. The collected data represents the vitamins and minerals found in the seed, specifically Finola, which is a variety of hemp plant that can withstand most climates. Comparing hempseed to other foods high in valuable protein, it shows hemp being similarly nutritional, if not more nutritional in other aspects, such as having an abundance of vitamins and minerals, such as omega-3 and omega-6. Similar dietary results were found in another study by Rodriguez-Leyva and Pierce (2010), showing CBD having high amounts of essential amino acids, such as arginine, which produces nitric oxide. Considering its many derivatives, their ability to attach to neurological and immune receptors, and their abundance in nutritional value, the purpose of this study is to assess whether CBD has a variety of natural therapeutic uses for overall wellness.

Results

The study presented by Elikottil, Gupta, and Gupta (2009) gave an overview of the history of cannabinoids and its use it has had in the field of medicine over the years. They delivered the breakdown of a cannabinoid, which is a derivative of the cannabis plant. They described the receptors a cannabinoid binds to or interacts with the human body, CB-1 and CB-2 receptors, as well as the effects on both the neurological system and immune system when used as an analgesic. The investigation of whether non-psychoactive cannabinoids, specifically endocannabinoids and synthetic cannabinoids, are beneficial is done through the study of animals by using rats and mice. They found significant information that CBD was extremely helpful for all diseases with no adverse effects (Elikottil, Gupta, & Gupta, 2009).

A study produced by Bali and Singh (2013) overlooked the effects different strains of CBD resin and hemp oil with concentrations of THC had on a 14-year-old girl with terminal acute lymphoblastic leukemia. She had previously received 34 weeks of aggressive chemotherapy, radiation, and multiple bone marrow transplants which all did not work. Before oral CBD administration, 300,000 blast cells were present. Within receiving five different hemp variations, blast cells peaked during the first couple days of each trial though plummeted within the next few days then staying low. However, during CBD treatment, the patient suffered from an infection, was given antibiotics, yet later passed away due to stomach bleeding. The authors believe that there is insufficient data to determine if CBD decreases blast cells (Bali & Singh, 2013).

A recent assessment by Gulluni, Re, Loiacono, Lanzo, Gori, Macchi, Epifani, Bragazzi, and Firenzuoli (2018) gathered five healthy individuals, three males and two females, and administered cannabis Sativa L essential oil through inhalation during three sessions. At the time of inhalation, one patient had a headache. Within the three sessions, heart rate and skin temperature increased relative to monoterpenes (limonene and a-pinene) found in essential oils. However, blood pressure decreased, their mood was much more pleasant, and the headache subsided. Also calculated was the amplitude of alpha waves in both regions of the brain, a reaction similar to someone who performs meditative practices (Gulluni, Re, Loiacono, Lanzo, Gori, Macchi, Epifani, Bragazzi, & Firenzuoli, 2018).

The research by Richard, Ganguly, Steigerwald, Al-Khalifa, and Pierce (2007) tested Sprague-Dawley rats to understand if hempseed oil reduced platelet aggregation. Platelet aggregation is due to the clumping together of platelets in the blood increasing the risk of clotting. The rats were administered either 5% or 10% of hempseed oil or 1% of palm oil for 12 weeks; the oil was added to their food before consumption. The rat’s blood was then collected, and platelet-rich plasma was taken from the samples. Both groups that were given either 5% or 10% of hempseed oil saw a significant decrease in platelet aggregation while they saw no change in the palm oil group (Richard, Ganguly, Steigerwald, Al-Khalifa, & Pierce, 2007).

The study by Iffland and Grotenhermen (2017) refers to the safety, side effects, and precautions towards the use of hemp with other drugs specifically for the treatment of epilepsy and psychotic disorders. The authors attest that when hemp or CBD is given in low or high dosages, it can be tolerated by humans. While paired with fentanyl, an opioid used for pain management, CBD did not increase the side effects of fentanyl, however, produced signs that co-administration could pave the way to use CBD as a potential treatment for opioid addiction (Iffland & Grotenhermen, 2017). In a separate study, opioids are pharmacokinetic drugs that help treat and manage pain in cancer patients or patients of older ages, improving functional activities (Chau, Walker, Pai, & Cho, 2008). Opioids come with an abundance of adverse side effects, such as endocrine, cardiovascular, central nervous system malfunctions, opioid-induced hyperalgesia, respiratory depression, pruritis, urinary retention, constipation, nausea, and addiction (Chau et al., 2008). Furthermore, Iffland and Grotenhermen’s study mentions administration differs between humans and animals, which could lead to misleading results (Iffland & Grotenhermen, 2017). 

The authors Porcari, Fu, Doll, Carter, and Carson (2018) assessed the use of CBD oil as adjunct therapy or treatment for patients with epilepsy. There were three different groups involved in this study, CBD as treatment, clobazam as treatment, and co-administration of CBD and clobazam (Porcari, Fu, Doll, Carter, & Carson, 2018). Clobazam is classified as a benzodiazepine to remove electrical activity in the brain for patients with epilepsy and comes with many adverse side effects (Medline Plus, 2017). The methodology and tables provided show an array of different subject types with different symptoms as well as the length of treatment and dosage, which could lead to misleading results. However, with patients just taking CBD as treatment or clobazam co-administered with CBD oil, the side effects show better results than just taking clobazam (Porcari et al., 2018). Another benefit found in the study when using CBD as treatment is the ability to wean off other antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) used as prior treatment; a lot of AEDs have side effects when taking them regularly though seizures are maintained (Medline Plus, 2017). Some patients stopped taking CBD because they saw no benefits; although, the reason for ceasing clobazam as treatment was because of the harsh side effects, such as sedation.

The research compiled by Devinsky, Cross, Laux, Marsh, Miller, Nabbout, Scheffer, Thiele, and Wright (2017) evaluated 120 children and young adults who suffer from Dravet Syndrome which is a form of drug-resistant epilepsy that has a high mortality rate and the effects CBD had on these patients. The patients were put into two groups, placebo or CBD, and each patient was administered 20 mg orally per kilogram of body weight each day in addition to their typical treatment which was clobazam. While receiving CBD, patients went from 12.9 seizures per month to 5.9 and when receiving the placebo, they went from 14.9 to 14.1 seizures per month. Another improvement with the use of CBD was that 62% of patients went down one category in a seven-category Likert rating scale, as well as 5% of patients were seizure free compared to 0% on the placebo. However, when administered CBD, 89% of patients had mild to moderate adverse effects due to dose escalation, yet once dosage reduced, adverse effects subsided (Devinsky, Cross, Laux, Marsh, Miller, Nabbout, Scheffer, Thiele, & Wright, 2017).

Discussion

The gathered results of the research and studies found to support the notion that non-psychoactive CBD has a variety of natural therapeutic uses for overall wellness. Combining all of the reviews performed in the articles, the authors’ support that hemp can aid in the relieving, managing, and potential healing of neuropathic diseases or disorders, inflammation, cancer, infections that use antibiotics, addiction, seizures, and headaches. The studies in the article written by Elikottil, Gupta, and Gupta suggest that the use of derived CBD oil, WIN-55,212-2 and HU-210, can aid in the treatment of many diseases because CB-1 and CB-2 receptors are triggered when CBD is administered. Reflecting the methodology performed on rats and mice, the authors concluded that cannabinoids could be beneficial to the human body in many aspects, such as relieving neuropathic pain, mediating inflammatory pain, managing cancer pain, and protect neuro-inflammation in patients with multiple sclerosis. However, human testing is still emerging (Elikottil et al., 2009). CBD significantly improves and suppresses mechanical allodynia caused by neuropathic pain due to diabetes, nerve injury, and chemotherapy-induced through binding to those receptors. CBD also regulates and reduces inflammation, which is a huge breakthrough because that is a common symptom of most diseases (Elikotti et al., 2009).

In Calloway’s study, CBD is typically over 90% of unsaturated fat which pertains to it potentially being extremely beneficial when relieving inflammation. Diets rich in unsaturated fats, such as omega-3 and omega-6, indicate positive immune responses in the heart and skin which are shown in other cultures after introducing hempseed oil nutritionally and medicinally. Heart, hair, skin, and nails all show improvement after ingestion and topical use of hempseed oil because of its suggested richness in fatty acids (Callaway, 2004). Heart disease, stroke, and high blood pressure could all be potentially reduced with the use of CBD or hemp oil because, not only does it have anti-inflammation properties, it also produces the flow of nitric oxide which slows blood flow. Also, this plant can withstand most climates making it a great crop to have throughout the world providing nutritional and medicinal support; this could be beneficial for places of low income.

CBD can aid in the recovery of addiction of opioids at the same time as treating other diseases. The idea that it can help with addiction is shown through the reduction of opioid-seeking behavior in mice (Iffland & Grotenhermen, 2017). CBD provides an amplitude of alpha waves in both brain regions which could change the chemical makeup in a lot of neurological disorders, such as addiction, bipolar disorder, psychosis, anxiety, and depression, this can not only get patients off of harsh drugs, but help improve emotional responses; this notion gives an indication that administration of CBD can change the medical industry (Iffland & Grotenhermen, 2017). Consistency in alpha waves as well as maintaining a pleasant mood might help with insomnia and other sleep issues.

In the studies, pairing CBD oil with fentanyl and clobazam tended to reverse the adverse side effects of those drugs as well as treat epilepsy by easing those symptoms at the same time (Porcari et al., 2018). Benefits of taking CBD were improved seizure control, increased alertness, improved verbal communications, better social interaction, and better overall mood (Porcari et al., 2018). However, in another study, patients experienced adverse effects from higher doses of CBD, but that could have been a reaction due to the use of their pharmaceutical treatment. Also relative was the death of the patient receiving CBD while terminally ill with leukemia. CBD decreased blast cells yet her unfortunate passing lead to the results as being inconclusive; however, her death could be a result of the harsh treatment she received before using CBD, more research is needed.

The potential limitations of these studies would be the consistency of the research, monitored potency of CBD, and type of subjects. Monitoring the strength of the strain is needed when calculating final results; whether it is measured as non-psychoactive or not is necessary for maintaining effects on CBD. Animal studies could differ in research findings because they don’t have the same metabolism as humans, follow-up studies should be done using human subjects once the initial research is finished. In general, more research is needed for better conclusions to be made in the medical field; considering it is a Schedule 1 drug, this could lead to presumptions when researching the topic. 

Conclusions

The research findings support that non-psychotropic cannabinoids (CBD) have a variety of natural therapeutic uses for overall wellness. When administering CBD, with or without pharmaceutical drugs, it significantly improves a person’s health while providing positive nutritional assistance; however, potency should be monitored when administered. The studies prove that it can be beneficial for patients with cancer, cardiac complications, seizures, and neurological disorders, such as mental illness. CBD is healthy, unsaturated fat, which is extremely useful when dealing with inflammation being the cause of most diseases. The chemical makeup of neurological disorders, such depression, addiction, bi-polar, and anxiety is altered with the use of CBD. Finding that it suppresses opioid dependence and the adverse side effects of pharmaceuticals is a massive advantage in the medical industry, bringing awareness to the idea that a schedule I classified drug is not designated to its psychotropic properties.

References

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Chau, D. L., Walker, V., Pai, L., & Cho, L. M. (2008). Opiates and elderly: use and side effects. Clinical Interventions in Aging, 3(2), 273–278.

Devinsky, O., Cross, J.H., Laux, L., Marsh, E., Miller, I., Nabbout, R., Scheffer, I.E., Thiele, E.A., & Wright, S. (2017) Trial of cannabidiol for drug-resistant seizures in the dravet syndrome. The New England Journal of Medicine, 376, 2011-2020. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa1611618

Elikottil, J., Gupta, P., & Gupta, K. (2009). The analgesic potential of cannabinoids. Journal of Opioid Management, 5(6), 341–357.

Gulluni, N., Re, T., Loiacono, I., Lanzo, G., Gori, L., Macchi, C., Epifani, F., Bragazzi, N., & Firenzuoli, F. (2018). Cannabis essential oil: a preliminary study for the evaluation of the brain effects. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, vol. 2018 (Article ID 1709182), 1-11. doi:10.1155/2018/1709182

Iffland, K., & Grotenhermen, F. (2017). An update on safety and side effects of cannabidiol: a review of clinical data and relevant animal studies. Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research, 2(1), 139–154. http://doi.org/10.1089/can.2016.0034

Medline Plus. (2017, March 15). Clobazam. Retrieved from https://medlineplus.gov/druginfo/meds/a612008.html

Porcari, G. S., Fu, C., Doll, E. D., Carter, E. G., & Carson, R. P. (2018). Efficacy of artisanal preparations of cannabidiol for the treatment of epilepsy: Practical experiences in a tertiary medical center. Epilepsy & behavior, 80, 240-246.doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2018.01.026

Richard, M.N., Ganguly, R., Steigerwald, S.N., Al-Khalifa, A., & Pierce, G.N. (2007) Dietary hempseed reduces platelet aggregation. Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 5(2), 424-425. doi.org/10.1111/j.1538-7836.2007.02327.x

Rodriguez-Leyva, D., & Pierce, G. N. (2010). The cardiac and haemostatic effects of dietary hempseed. Nutrition & Metabolism, 7, 32. http://doi.org/10.1186/1743-7075-7-32

Singh, Y. & Bali, C. (2013) Cannabis extract treatment for terminal acute lymphoblastic leukemia with philadelphia chromosome mutation. Case Reports in Oncology, 6(3), 585-592. doi.org/10.1159/000356446